In their work with minor and adult victims of various forms of violence, professionals in the fields of forensic psychology and law frequently encounter behaviors and reactions from victims that, at first glance, seem difficult to understand or even counterintuitive: delays in disclosing the abuse, returning to the abusive environment, or a lack of resistance at critical moments. These manifestations can lead to misinterpretations, especially in the absence of an appropriate conceptual framework, sometimes resulting in conclusions that affect both the assessment of the credibility of the reported and recounted incidents of abuse and subsequent decisions. In this context, the integration of scientifically validated models becomes essential to support a rigorous and nuanced understanding of victims’ behavior, regardless of age or the type of violence experienced. One such model, with direct implications for criminal investigations, is “learned helplessness.”

The concept of “learned helplessness,” formulated by Martin Seligman, refers to a psychological state that arises from repeated exposure to adverse events perceived as uncontrollable. Under these conditions, the individual learns that their responses do not influence outcomes, developing a generalized expectation of lack of control. This expectation leads to three types of deficits: motivational (reduced initiative), cognitive (difficulty learning the relationship between action and outcome), and emotional (the emergence of depressive or anxiety-like symptoms). Subsequently, this state can generalize and persist even in contexts where control would, objectively speaking, be possible.

Within Martin Seligman’s theory of learned helplessness, adverse events are those experiences perceived by the individual as unpleasant, threatening, or causing physical or psychological distress, which the person is motivated to avoid or stop. Their central characteristic is not merely their negativity, but above all the perception of a lack of control over their onset, course, or cessation.

From a conceptual and practical perspective, they can be categorized as follows:

By nature:

► Physical: intentional acts of physical violence that resulted in or could have resulted in physical harm to one of the partners, or acts intended to instill fear, such as: shoving, slapping, hair-pulling, pinching, immobilization, jerking, throwing to the ground, biting, kicking, punching, or striking with an object, burning, poisoning, choking, strangling, holding the head underwater, and using a weapon.

► Psychological/emotional: verbal abuse, humiliation, threats, rejection, intimidation, gaslighting, exploitation of emotional and/or material dependence, intimidation and instilling fear, control of behavior and autonomy, systematic devaluation and destruction of self-esteem, alternating abuse and reward, inducing guilt and shifting blame, emotional control, and invalidation of emotions.

► Social: exclusion, stigmatization, relational isolation, financial control, limiting access to financial resources, and control and monitoring of communication channels.

By predictability:

► Predictable: can be anticipated (e.g., violence in certain recurring contexts);

► Unpredictable: occur without warning—these have a stronger impact on the development of learned helplessness.

By controllability:

► Controllable: can be influenced by the individual’s behavior;

► Uncontrollable: persist regardless of response—a central category for the development of learned helplessness.

By frequency and duration:

► Acute/isolated: one-time events;

► Chronic/repetitive: prolonged exposure—associated with more severe psychological effects.

The manifestations of learned helplessness, as derived from the model formulated by Martin Seligman and subsequent developments, are typically organized across three interrelated levels—motivational, cognitive, and emotional—with behavioral manifestations relevant in clinical and legal contexts.

Motivational Manifestations (Observable Behavior)

• Passivity and inhibition of action;
• Quick surrender in the face of difficulties;
• Reduced initiative / avoidance of decisions;
• Difficulty asking for help, even when it is available;
• Persistence in adverse situations (such as remaining in an abusive relationship)

Cognitive manifestations:

• Generalized expectation of lack of control (“nothing I do matters”);
• Negative attributional style: internal (“it’s my fault”), stable–permanent (“the situation won’t change”), global (“I have no control”);
• Difficulty learning the relationship between action and outcome;
• Underestimation of one’s own resources and options.

Emotional manifestations:

• Depressive mood / persistent sadness;
• Anxiety and hypervigilance (especially in contexts of abuse);
• Feelings of helplessness, despair, resignation, apathy;
• Decreased self-esteem;
• In some cases, emotional numbness or dissociation.

It is important to take into account the symptomatology that has developed when handling cases involving minor or adult victims in order to correctly understand:

• the lack of a defensive reaction;
• the delay in disclosing the abuse;
• returning to or remaining in the abusive environment;
• the appearance of “cooperation” with the abuser.

It is essential to understand that these behaviors do not reflect consent or a lack of credibility, but are the expression of defense strategies developed under conditions of coercion and lack of control.

Bibliography:

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. (1986). Learned helplessness in children: A longitudinal study of depression, achievement, and explanatory style. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(2), 435–442

Article written by Patricia Aramă, clinical psychologist and expert psychologist specializing in the psychological assessment and forensic evaluation of children